The Story of Vermilion Red

Vermilion (alternatively spelt Vermillion) was an ancient, mercury-based pigment with an illustrious history in painting. It was first used as far back as the Neolithic age, and was one of the primary red pigments in the European painter’s palette from the medieval period until it was largely replaced by Cadmium Red in the early 20th century. This article traces the history of Vermilion, how it was used in the artist palette, and asks whether Cadmium Red is still the best modern alternative.

The History of Vermilion

When we talk about Vermilion, we are really talking about two pigments which, while they are chemically identical, are made in different ways. The earliest version of the pigment was made from cinnabar, a mercury-sulphide-containing red mineral which was heated, crushed, washed, and ground into a fine pigment. The artificial version was made by combining mercury and sulphur, heating the compound, and grinding it to bring out its red colour.

From top: Holbein Genuine Vermilion Oil Paint and Michael Harding Genuine Chinese Vermilion Oil Paint (made with natural cinnabar)

The terms ‘Vermilion’ and ‘Cinnabar’ have often been used interchangeably because both refer to a mercury-sulphide-containing pigment. However many sources now make a distinction between ‘Vermilion’, referring to a pigment made from artificially-created mercury-sulphide, and ‘Cinnabar’, which is the natural version made from the mineral. Whether natural or artificial, it was used across the ancient world. The first known instance of its use as a pigment is in Neolithic wall paintings found in modern day Turkey, dated between 8000 and 7000 BC. It has also been found on painted Bronze Age Greek sculptures, Persian jewelry from the 5th century BC, and funerary objects from 10th-century Peru. The artificial version of the pigment was first developed in China in the 4th century BC. However, the natural version made from ground cinnabar mineral continued to be used alongside it. During the Ancient Roman period, cinnabar was mined in Almadén, Spain, and created the hot, orange-red that was so characteristic of Roman frescoes.

Wall painting from Room H of the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale, 50–40 BCE
Fresco, 186.7 x 186.7 cm | 73.5 x 73.5 in
The Met Museum

From around the 9th century onwards, Vermilion was a widely used colour for European painters and manuscript illuminators. However, the pigment was as expensive as gold, and was reportedly often cut with cheaper red pigments to increase its profitibility. Despite its cost, toxicity, and tendency to darken in certain environmental conditions if it wasn’t prepared properly, it was the primary orange-red in the artists palette. It was opaque and vibrant, a useful colour for modelling flesh tones and drapery. Throughout the early modern period, a frequently employed technique for red drapery and clothing was an underpainting of Vermilion, followed by a transparent glaze of a Red Lake pigment. The opaque Vermilion provided a deep base, making the fabric appear rich and sumptuous.

Vermilion continued to play a significant role in European oil painting well into the 19th century. Its opacity and fiery boldness lent itself well to the Impressionist painting style that developed from middle of the century, and it was used by Georges Seurat, Vincent Van Gogh, Edgar Degas, and others. However, in 1892, a new red pigment was patented that would come to largely replace Vermilion: Cadmium Red. Vermilion was expensive and could be unpredictable in its permanence, but Cadmium Red was more afforable, had excellent chemical stability, and was much less toxic. It is easy to see why artists abandoned the historical pigment in favour of the newcomer.

Cadmium Red dry pigment

Genuine Vermilion paints are still made today (identified by the pigment index number PR106), but it is available in very few ranges and is limited to oil paints. Michael Harding’s Chinese Vermilion and Holbein’s Vermilion are two examples of the genuine pigment in oil ranges. Nevertheless, the name of the colour has never gone away. Many paint, pastel, and coloured pencil ranges make bright orange-reds that they call ‘Vermilion’, even if the pigments that they use are modern alternatives instead of the genuine historical pigment. It just shows that while the pigment itself is mostly obsolete, the legacy of the colour will take a long time to disappear.

Is Cadmium Red Really the Best Alternative to Vermilion?

More than a century has passed since Cadmium Red superseded Vermilion, so is it still the best alternative to the historical pigment? The first consideration is that there are different varieties of Cadmium Red pigment; Cadmium Red Light, Cadmium Red Medium, and Cadmium Red Deep. These variations are all opaque, but are different in their hue and chroma. The second consideration is that the Vermillion paints that are available today are not necessarily the same as the what was used throughout history. The colour could change depending on the presence of impurities (especially in the case of natural Cinnabar), and how long it had been ground and milled for. Depending on these factors it could be a bright red-orange through to a earthy brown-red.

The two genuine Vermilions used in this article are just two examples of a colour that could vary considerably. Nevertheless, it will be interesting to compare them to the three common variations of Cadmium Red to see if there’s one that really stands out as a good alternative:

From left: Holbein Genuine Vermilion Oil Paint (PR106)
Michael Harding Genuine Chinese Vermilion Oil Paint (PR106)
Jackson’s Professional Cadmium Red Light Oil Paint (PR108)
Schmincke Horadam Cadmium Red Medium Watercolour (PR108)
Jackson’s Professional Cadmium Red Deep Oil Paint

The above two versions of genuine Vermilion are very quite different. Holbein’s is extremely vibrant (bringing to mind Vermeer’s red dress), but the Michael Harding iteration is warmer, darker in value, and more earthy in hue (more similar to the Roman fresco red). Immediately, Cadmium Red Light appears most similar to the Holbein version, but is even brighter. Cadmium Red Medium also shares Vermilion’s orange-bias, to a lesser extent. Cadmium Red Deep is a much more purple-shade of red and, although it shares something of the earthy-quality of Michael Harding’s Genuine Chinese Vermilion, it lacks the orange undertone that is characteristic of the historical colour. Holbein’s Vermilion can certainly be replaced by modern Cadmium Red or Cadmium Red Light, but Michael Harding’s Vermilion has warm brown undertones that the Cadmiums don’t provide.

However, colour isn’t the only consideration when it comes to a modern dupe for a historical pigment. What Vermilion and Cadmium Red share is an incredibly dense opacity. All of the shades of Cadmium Red match Vermilion in this aspect. This gives Cadmium Reds a punchiness and covering power that is extremely reminiscent of the historical pigment. It seems that Cadmium Red can very comfortably fill the role that Vermilion played in the artist palette for centuries.

Are Vermilion Hues Good Alternatives to the Historical Colour?

As previously mentioned, there are many paints named ‘Vermilion’ today. These are hues, colours that recreate a historical pigment, even if they don’t always mention the word ‘hue’ in the colour name. They are made from modern red-orange pigments that don’t have the toxicity of mercury-containing Vermilion. Looking at all of the modern Vermilion hues, there are three pigments that appear to be used most frequently. These are:

• PR188 (Napthol Red, introduced in the 1920s)
• PO36 (Benzimidazole Orange, introduced in the 1960s)
• PR255 (Pyrrole Red, introduced in the 1970s)

Do these modern pigments bear any resemblance to historical Vermilion? In the comparison with the Cadmiums I was comparing the masstone (the paint straight from the tube), but for this comparison I tinted each colour incrementally with Titanium White to reveal the undertones and tinting strengths of the pigments:

From top: Holbein Genuine Vermilion Oil Paint (PR106)
Michael Harding Genuine Chinese Vermilion Oil Paint (PR106)
Schmincke Mussini Vermilion Red Oil Paint (PR255, Pyrrole Red)
Derivan Matisse Vermilion Acrylic Paint (PO36, Benzimidazole Orange)
Daniel Smith Organic Vermilion Watercolour (PR188, Napthol Red)

Comparing the masstone (the first swatch on the left of each row), the Vermilion hues seem very similar to the genuine Vermilions. However, as they are tinted more differences become apparent. The genuine Vermilions both have a gentle, rosy undertone, which is less orange than I was expecting. They are also relatively low in tinting strength, and quickly fade into blushing pinks when Titanium White is added. Pyrrole Red (PR255, Schmincke Mussini Vermilion Red Oil Paint) is much stronger in tinting strength and far higher in chroma. Benzimidazole Orange (PO36, Derivan Matisse Vermilion Acrylic Paint), is also much higher in tinting strength, and is extremely warm in hue (this is to be expected, being an orange rather than a red pigment). Within this comparison, Napthol Red (PR188, Daniel Smith Organic Vermilion Watercolour) is probably the most similar to the historical Vermilions. Its tinting strength is the most gentle, and in tints it produces very similar warm pinks.

It should be noted that this is a very limited comparison. There are many other pigments that are used to recreate Vermilion, and paints from different paint-makers can vary in tinting strength and hue, even if they use the same pigment. It is also not surprising that the modern Vemilion hues are much stronger and brighter than the historical pigment, as most modern pigments are manufactured with efficient colour pay-off and high saturation in mind. While the density of the Cadmiums seem to make them the most natural successors of genuine Vermilion, the more modern Cadmium-free alternatives still provide something of the spirit of the historical pigment. It is extraordinary that we are still using evolved versions of the colour more than 10,000 years after it was first used.

Further Reading

Colour Mixing: Exploring the Zorn Palette

Venetian Red: the Red Earth Pigment That Evokes the Italian Renaissance

In Conversation With David Coles of Langridge Artist Colours

Colour Mixing: Eight Reds in Six Restricted Palettes

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